Construct matrices containing landmark points for two shapes, and visualize the shapes by plotting their landmark points.

X = [40 88; 51 88; 35 78; 36 75; 39 72; 44 71; 48 71; 52 74; 55 77];
Y = [36 43; 48 42; 31 26; 33 28; 37 30; 40 31; 45 30; 48 28; 51 24];
plot(X(:,1),X(:,2),"x")
hold on
plot(Y(:,1),Y(:,2),"o")
xlim([0 100])
ylim([0 100])
legend("Target shape (X)","Comparison shape (Y)")

Compare the shapes and view their Procrustes distance.

[d,Z] = procrustes(X,Y)

d = 0.2026

Z = 9×2

   39.7694   87.5089
   50.5616   86.8011
   35.5487   72.1631
   37.3131   73.9909
   40.8735   75.8503
   43.5517   76.7959
   48.0577   75.9771
   50.7835   74.2286
   53.5410   70.6841

Visualize the shape that results from superimposing Y onto X.

plot(Z(:,1),Z(:,2),"s")
legend("Target shape (X)","Comparison shape (Y)", ...
    "Transformed shape (Z)")
hold off

Use the Procrustes transformation returned by procrustes to analyze how it superimposes the comparison shape onto the target shape.

Generate sample data in two dimensions.

rng("default")
n = 10;  
Y = normrnd(0,1,[n 2]);

Create the target shape X by rotating Y 60 degrees (pi/3 in radians), scaling the size of Y by factor 0.5, and then translating the points by adding 2. Also, add some noise to the landmark points in X.

S = [cos(pi/3) -sin(pi/3); sin(pi/3) cos(pi/3)]

S = 2×2

    0.5000   -0.8660
    0.8660    0.5000

X = normrnd(0.5*Y*S+2,0.05,n,2);

Find the Procrustes transformation that can transform Y to X.

[~,Z,transform] = procrustes(X,Y);

Display the components of the Procrustes transformation.

transform

transform = struct with fields:
    T: [2x2 double]
    b: 0.4845
    c: [10x2 double]

transform.T

ans = 2×2

    0.4832   -0.8755
    0.8755    0.4832

transform.c

ans = 10×2

    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836
    2.0325    1.9836

transform.T is similar to the matrix S. Also, the scale component (transform.b) is close to 0.5, and the translation component values (transform.c) are close to 2.

Determine whether transform.T indicates a rotation or reflection by computing the determinant of transform.T. The determinant of a rotation matrix is 1, and the determinant of a reflection matrix is –1.

det(transform.T) 

ans = 1

In two-dimensional space, a rotation matrix that rotates a point by an angle of $\theta$ degrees about the origin has the form

$\left[\begin{array}{cc}\cos \theta & -\sin \theta \\ \sin \theta & \cos \theta \end{array}\right]$.

If you use either $$\cos \theta$$ or $$\sin \theta$$, the rotation angle has two possible values between –180 and 180. Use both the $$\cos \theta$$ and $$\sin \theta$$ values to determine the rotation angle of the matrix without ambiguity. Using the atan2d function, you can determine the $$\tan \theta$$ value from $$\cos \theta$$ and $$\sin \theta$$, and also determine the angle.

theta = atan2d(transform.T(2,1),transform.T(1,1))

theta = 61.1037

transform.T is a rotation matrix of 61 degrees.

Use the Procrustes transformation returned by procrustes to analyze how it superimposes the comparison shape onto the target shape.

Create matrices with landmark points for two separate shapes.

X = [20 13; 20 20; 20, 29; 20 40; 12 36];
Y = [36 7; 36 10; 36 14; 36 20; 39 18];

Plot the landmark points to visualize the shapes.

plot(X(:,1),X(:,2),"-x")
hold on
plot(Y(:,1),Y(:,2),"-o")
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 50])
legend("Target shape (X)","Comparison shape (Y)")
hold off

Obtain the Procrustes transformation by using procrustes.

[d,Z,transform] = procrustes(X,Y)

d = 0.0064

Z = 5×2

   20.1177   13.3935
   19.9145   19.6790
   19.6435   28.0597
   19.2371   40.6306
   13.0871   36.2371

transform = struct with fields:
    T: [2x2 double]
    b: 2.0963
    c: [5x2 double]

transform.T

ans = 2×2

   -0.9995   -0.0323
   -0.0323    0.9995

transform.c

ans = 5×2

   96.0177    1.1661
   96.0177    1.1661
   96.0177    1.1661
   96.0177    1.1661
   96.0177    1.1661

The scale component of the transformation b indicates that the scale of X is about twice the scale of Y.

Find the determinant of the rotation and reflection component of the transformation.

det(transform.T)

ans = -1.0000

The determinant is –1, which means that the transformation contains a reflection.

In two-dimensional space, a reflection matrix has the form

$\left[\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos2}\theta & \mathrm{sin2}\theta \\ \mathrm{sin2}\theta & -\mathrm{cos2}\theta \end{array}\right]$,

which indicates a reflection over a line that makes an angle $$\theta$$ with the x-axis.

If you use either $$\cos 2\theta$$ or $$\sin 2\theta$$, the angle for the line of reflection has two possible values between –90 and 90. Use both the $$\cos 2\theta$$ and $$\sin 2\theta$$ values to determine the angle for the line of reflection without ambiguity. Using the atan2d function, you can determine the $$\tan 2\theta$$ value from $$\cos 2\theta$$ and $$\sin 2\theta$$, and also determine the angle.

theta = atan2d(transform.T(2,1),transform.T(1,1))/2

theta = -89.0741

transform.T reflects points across a line that makes roughly a –90 degree angle with the x-axis; this line indicates the y-axis. The plots of X and Y show that reflecting across the y-axis is required to superimpose Y onto X.

Find the Procrustes transformation for landmark points, and apply the transformation to more points on the comparison shape than just the landmark points.

Create matrices with landmark points for two triangles X (target shape) and Y (comparison shape).

X = [5 0; 5 5; 8 5];
Y = [0 0; 1 0; 1 1];

Create a matrix with more points on the triangle Y.

Y_points = [linspace(Y(1,1),Y(2,1),10)' linspace(Y(1,2),Y(2,2),10)'
            linspace(Y(2,1),Y(3,1),10)' linspace(Y(2,2),Y(3,2),10)'
            linspace(Y(3,1),Y(1,1),10)' linspace(Y(3,2),Y(1,2),10)'];

Plot both shapes, including the larger set of points for the comparison shape.

plot([X(:,1); X(1,1)],[X(:,2); X(1,2)],"bx-")
hold on
plot([Y(:,1); Y(1,1)],[Y(:,2); Y(1,2)],"ro-","MarkerFaceColor","r")
plot(Y_points(:,1),Y_points(:,2),"ro")
xlim([-1 10])
ylim([-1 6])
legend("Target shape (X)","Comparison shape (Y)", ...
    "Additional points on Y","Location","northwest")

Call procrustes to obtain the Procrustes transformation from the comparison shape to the target shape.

[d,Z,transform] = procrustes(X,Y)

d = 0.0441

Z = 3×2

    5.0000    0.5000
    4.5000    4.5000
    8.5000    5.0000

transform = struct with fields:
    T: [2x2 double]
    b: 4.0311
    c: [3x2 double]

Use the Procrustes transformation to superimpose the other points (Y_points) on the comparison shape onto the target shape, and then visualize the results.

Z_points = transform.b*Y_points*transform.T + transform.c(1,:);
plot([Z(:,1); Z(1,1)],[Z(:,2); Z(1,2)],"ks-","MarkerFaceColor","k")
plot(Z_points(:,1),Z_points(:,2),"ks")
legend("Target shape (X)","Comparison shape (Y)", ...
    "Additional points on Y","Transformed shape (Z)", ...
    "Transformed additional points","Location","best")
hold off

Construct the shapes of the handwritten letters d and b using landmark points, and then plot the points to visualize the letters.

D = [33 93; 33 87; 33 80; 31 72; 32 65; 32 58; 30 72;
     28 72; 25 69; 22 64; 23 59; 26 57; 30 57];
B = [48 83; 48 77; 48 70; 48 65; 49 59; 49 56; 50 66;
     52 66; 56 65; 58 61; 57 57; 54 56; 51 55];
plot(D(:,1),D(:,2),"x-")
hold on
plot(B(:,1),B(:,2),"o-")
legend("Target shape (d)","Comparison shape (b)")
hold off

Use procrustes to compare the letters with reflection turned off, because reflection would turn the b into a d and not accurately preserve the shape you want to compare.

d = procrustes(D,B,"reflection",false)

d = 0.3425

Try using procrustes with reflection on to see how the Procrustes distance differs.

d = procrustes(D,B,"reflection","best")

d = 0.0204

This reflection setting results in a smaller Procrustes distance because reflecting b better aligns it with d.

Construct two shapes represented by their landmark points, and then plot the points to visualize them.

X = [20 13; 20 20; 20 29; 20 40; 12 36];
Y = [36  7; 36 10; 36 14; 36 20; 39 18];
plot(X(:,1),X(:,2),"-x")
hold on
plot(Y(:,1),Y(:,2),"-o")
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 50])
legend("Target shape (X)","Comparison shape (Y)")

Compare the two shapes using Procrustes analysis with scaling turned off.

[d,Z] = procrustes(X,Y,"scaling",false)

d = 0.2781

Z = 5×2

   19.2194   20.8229
   19.1225   23.8214
   18.9932   27.8193
   18.7993   33.8162
   15.8655   31.7202

Visualize the superimposed landmark points.

plot(Z(:,1),Z(:,2),"-s")
legend("Target shape (X)","Comparison shape (Y)", ...
    "Transformed shape (Z)")
hold off

The superimposed shape Z does not differ in scale from the original shape Y.